Relationship Between Culture and Economy

kin Between ending and EconomyCritically consider the affinityship surrounded by ending and preservation. To what extent is it true to suggest that decline of lodge and the growing of emulous individualism be produced by the shifting postulate of the capitalistic economy?INDIVIDUALISMindependent egotism reliancea article of belief that bases morality on the interests of the individuala sociable theory maintaining the policy-making and economic independence of the individual and stressing individual initiative (Penguin English Dictionary, 2001)an economic system characterized by the pro explosion motive and by private go a itinerary power and go steady of the means of work, distri moreoverion and ex channelize (Penguin English Dictionary, 2001)The 15th coulomb saw the stand out of graciousism and the re-evaluation of the benignant condition in relation to his or her world. This was viewed as a journey from the dark ages of fear and anerousness to the enligh tened visions of indivi dichotomy and hope. In honesty, it was a journey that very hardly a(prenominal) were privileged enough to afford. unmatchable bena for the exercise of this alternative access path was equating simple Greek and Roman horticultures with what was because the rigours of contemporary religion. Already, the turn updoor(a)ise of the individual is looking to an wise(prenominal) stereotype for definition. Yet how surprised these primordial scholars would be to find that with this individuality came passage of familiarity spirit, apathy and destruction of the extended family in supposedly groundbreaking societies. They would probably be little surprised to find that political economy and government activity atomic number 18 two of the tools which fork over been utilise to carve out and colour these new societies.The pastime try out looks at how checkicularized these factors do work at heart this changing framework of postmodern (Featherst unity, 1991) federation. It extends its scope beyond classical economic and political theory, which is delinquent more than consideration that given here. It considered some of the literature unattached on the subjugate of culture and political economy, but, in ball club to get a balanced view, it in addition tries to see what other elements contribute to the decline of federation.To start with, it is necessary to learn the elements that go to go for up contemporary alliance. To put it in Foucaultian (1983) foothold, how be these discourses constructed and what are their requirements. How specific are they to each(prenominal) confederation?They discourses offer us sociable positions and statuses the capitalist economy makes us into workers, employers or unemployed(Burr, An innovation to Social Constructivism, 1995, p.54)Culture and political economy puddle been much studied, investigated and written virtually but the relationship among the two has been a diff icult mavin to define. Guiso, Sapienza, Zingales, (2005) argue for a heterogeneity of preferences as affecting massess economic choices. If one agrees with this, then the grow of this heterogeneity have to include culture. However, each of these elements of human guild have only the st baron of the time in which they are created. They are shifting sands and manipulated by both internal and external factors. For example, in a democracy where politicians are elected by the people, it offer be supposed that they are truism what the people like to give a centering and promising to do what the people who elect them want. It may be a cynical view, but once in power, it appears that one soma of function gives way to some other. As Chomsky (1992) says, propaganda is to democracies what power is to dictatorships. Political offer both reacts and leads. Yet, as the Frankfurt School of Philosophy exhibitions, a depressingly negative departure between applied reason and an ability for society to cope with, and admit positively to, spay. For example, the search for panaceas (Horkheimer, 1987) disturbs explanations of society and economics. The panacea of the poor, as the saying goes, use to be religion. Theorists now point to consumerism as the new religion, yet it fails to exit the happiness it promises.Horkheimer (1987) explores the roots from which these questions arise and examines the supremacy of individuality and autonomy. Why, when advanced expert societies seem to provide much(prenominal) go throughs of individual choice, is thither such discontentment? Could it be that an d possess the stairsmining of certain honour has rendered us instinctively insecure? Could it be that there is truth in the narratement that every aspect of culture is in the process of commodification and linkage to the sale of goods (Herman, 1995)? If so, is individuality an fallacy and adult male purely commodities to be sold to whether with ethnic setity or a dherence to contemporary ideals?For the purpose of this strain, certain parameters need to be determined on the anesthetises. For example, culture, as defined by the Penguin English Dictionary (2001), is a number of things. It is mental development, namely through education. It is the intellectual and artistic wisdom as distinguished from vocational and technical skills. It is the customary beliefs and affable forms of specific groups. Finally it is defined as socially transmitted pattern of human behaviour that includes thought, speech, action, institutions and artefacts (Penguin, 2001). This essay go away mostly command the last definition of culture. Economics seems simpler to define A social science concerned familiarly with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services (Penguin, 2001). However, even in these general damage it is easy to see how culture and economy inter-depend. For the purpose of this essay, culture and economics will be put in the context of capitalist economies. It will start with questioning what the needs are of a capitalist economy according to theory and actuality. It will then examine how community has changed and whether both the past society and present individuality are ideals rather than realities. This will then be put in the context of contemporary society. Whilst this essay has a specific focus, it is understood that there are many other forms of political, social and economic systems and these green goddess have different effects depending on their societies. For example, as Paecher, in agreement with Burrs quotation in a higher place, points outDifferent forms of discourse result in the prioritising of different forms of knowledge change the power relations between discourses and the knowledge relations associated with them will change as well(Paechter, Educating the Other gender, power and schooling, 2001)This puts the issues within a ethnic context. To do the same with regard to economics one could assimilate the following example. Certain people who benefit from a technologically advanced capitalist economy would find survival extremely challenging in a subsistence economy. However, this is but one approach and one aspect of these issues. In order to see whether capitalism and the increase of individuality alone have been the reasons for a decline in the ideal of community, the needs of all these elements of society have to be considered.The needs of a capitalist economy can maybe both be guided and led by the society they are structured with. A need to understand and quantify the changes that occur within these economies has led to works such as that done by Webber and Rigby (in Albritton et al, 2001, pp. 246-262). To take a factual analysis as typical of the more classical economics, they theatre of operations the slow d suffer in world economy that took agency in the 1970s. They concluded that a lowering profitability in the advanced economies was to blame for the slow dget. They took this overview and quantified the results of economic change in order to survey what the reasons were from an analytical stead.In reality, unemployment rose and wages, as Sennett shows, fell. He quotes a illuminate of 18% in American wages between 1973 and 1995 (Sennett, 1998, p.54). Whilst the division of affluent and poor is as evident through history as today, the deceit that a capitalist society would benefit all individuals was dissolved. Discontent and dis invocation with political promises became part of the culture. It may be that the pressures felt by individuals to pass on and survive through hawkish application of business strategies has its roots in the depression and vulnerability of unemployment. Sennett duologue about these changing pressures in basis of inequality within corporate structures. He has individuals required to out put to death and increase skill diversity (p.55) in order to succeed. Work is wherefore governed by ec onomics on the one hand and culture on the other with politics as a mediator between craved forms of society and managed realities. In this light, the opposite of competitive individualism is unemployment and whilst fear of the last mentioned keeps the former competitive, the cost of the latter encourages methods of achieving full employment. For example, Featherstone uses the actions of Seattle (1996) to develop its pictorial matter as a quality of life capital (p.107). The aim was to reduce its book unemployment by making itself attractive both within the cultural knowledge domain above and as a thriving economic entity. This postmodernisation (Cooke, 1988 Zukin, 1988b cited in Featherstone, 1996) is, once again, a form of self-publicisation and image production something that this essay will repossess to later.To contain to the UK situation. A percentage of the UK population became dependent on the wellbeing State for survival and became known as the long-term unemployed. Politics and economics are at the forefront when it diminishs to paying for unemployment. Since the 70s, politics has tested both a carrot and stick approach to reducing outgoings on the unemployed. Behind these initiatives is the Government budget and the premise that you can measure the success of a country by its National expenditure this will be returned to later. Politics has continued to experiment with methods of cutting the costs of the Welfare State. Programs such as working for the dole were started. Limiting the time unemployment benefit is available for has been tried. Gradually, the programs and policies work there way back to education, the family and the community. For example the Back to unfathomed principle campaign could be seen as an attempt to introduce value that would ostensibly aid community cohesion. However, the ethics involved required a level of appreciation and agreement with the cultural capital (Bordieu, 1987, cited in Featherstone, 1991) of that discourse. Long-term unemployment undermined the foreboding and value of educational cultural capital. Yet, western governments tended to view education as a principal means for alleviating social disadvantage (Webb, Schirato Danaher, 2002, p.111). Therefore politics had to try and create the value to aid economics. For a section of society, there was no educational habitus, as Bordieu would put it, or familiarity with mind sets that make education familiar. Again, politics needed to create these as natural expectations. This is one demonstration of the links between economics, culture and individuality and already it shows how the elements are forced both to react and interact. It to a fault shows a necessity for illusion, created ideals, stereotypes and manipulations.A different approach looks at the ethics behind human society and puts parameters on the changes they incur. For example, market survival, success and failure through economic cycles brings in Sennetts (1998) explor ation of flexibility. Flexibility can take a global or local approach for businesses (and seems to be one of the make ideals that consumerism needs to create within its target markets). When faced by go earnings in their domestic markets, the multi-nationals (cigarette firms, drinks etc) tend to expand into under-developed markets such as the third world, youth, specific racial groups (Herman, 1995). Other forms of flexibility worked on creating needs in domestic markets (Sennett, 1998). They create niche markets and challenge the individual to be incomplete without compliance. These needs may be defined as part of the basis of capitalist economies, but they excessively rick part of the define factors of their societies, part of their history and therefore their culture.The next question is how is the actuality of community modify by business. How do the ethics applied to financial success co- follow with a construction of community? A tendency to divide the community into t heatrical role elements business community, cultural community, class community etc has led to a set out of definitions. Wenger (1998), for example, justifys individual integration into business systems through the idea of a community of practise. The variables are at what level individuals are integrated into these systems and this is one way of viewing business and business community in contemporary society. It can also start to expose the closing off even within a workforce. For example an ITC worker can work from an office or cornerstone so long as the technology is in place. Although he or she is a member of this community of practise, they can be isolated from the control systems that lead it. Even if working from home, they are divided between which community they are contributing to.To return to consumerism, it would seem that rather than focus on the destruction of the family as a form of power, consumerism and the business community uses it as an tone of individuality . Likewise, politics appears, when faced by a population that is demanding reform, to come up with an ideal that no longer exists and re-creates it in the form it requires the nuclear family becomes a unit of modernity, substantive services become community actions.The forms utilize to promote these needs range from local packaging to mass media, globalisation and spin politics. Herman (1995) looks at the affect of the market on culture. He identifies the tools of commercialization on television, both in subliminal forms (brand placement) and straight-forward advertising. He looks at how barter exploits certain pre-existing elements which sell (1995) (e.g. sex and violence). He suggests that the global popularity of American movies, music and escapisms reflects the global decline in family and civil life, and loss of religion in politics. (Herman, 1995, p.8) Whilst this has been a simplification of the intricacies of commercialisation, it agrees with those such as Slater who state that culture as a whole has become consumer culture (Slater, 1997, p121).In the introductory section questions were raised as to why discontent should exist in an apparently free society. So far, the dichotomy of appearance and actuality in a capitalist society has been alluded to rather than explored. At the essence of this duality is perchance the recognition that the fundamental unit of meaning in capitalist and economic thought is the object,, that is, capitalism relies on the creation of a consumer culture (Hooker, 1996). An object is controllable and manipulatable. However, if the object is a human being then it is that persons individual choice that has to be appealed to. As the roots of commerce tend not be the same ethically as those applied to society, appealing to individual choice requires a certain percentage point of basic undermining of community set. This ethical dissimilarity is shown by the types of programs Governments use to fight business, which they mustiness in a market economy, as opposed to the types of programs used to re-construct community. Whilst the former takes a business community approach, the latter tends to work on the individual.At one level, the individual is expected to rationalise, at the other to conform through consumerism and political acquiescence. Alexander (1997) explains that recognition of this duality of commerce and its society has existed for some time. In essence, he argues that an imbalance threatens society when it becomes overly overriding and creates a severed culture (Alexander, 1997, p.209) and therefore artificially sustained. He quotes Disraeli and juggle as warning that asimilar gulf continues everywhere between the mind of commerce and industry on the one hand, and the mind of non-commercial people most people on the other.(Alexander, The Civilised Market, 1997, pp.208-209)If this is the case, one of the needs of a capitalist economy from its community is complicity and another is apa thy. When the USA and the UK became enamoured with the market, they did not amply comprehend that business is ground on profits and that present profits are offsets to future costs (Alexander, 1997, p.124). Governments back up markets at the cost of bitty business, competitiveness and ultimately high unemployment. To concur an artificial ethic, society must either be too powerless, and at worst apathetic, to demand change, or too comfortable believing the ideals of individuality. The price of this redefinition of self has been loss of community cohesion. This brings us to the means of capitalist power and whether loss of community set are the price to be paid for individuality.Slater examines how philosophies and theorists identify dementia (Slater, 1997, p.104) of the individual where people become a commodity to be managed. For the majority, they no longer are integrated into a society within which they are part of the control system. It has been argued that there is the il lusion of control maintained through choice (Slater, 1997). An idealistic example could be an individual in a self-sufficient but essentially subsistence economy such as a tribal village. Each person contributes to the survival of the whole village. Roles are understood. Culture is therefore a reflection of unity and survival. However, in the apparently comfortable, technologically advanced economies, the cult of the individual has placed specific values on success through materialism and by chance best supported this through the illusion of choice. Slater further examines this illusion of choice and its production through the media and suggests thatAll consumption, but above all cultural consumption, has become compensatory, integrative and functional. It offers the illusions of freedom, choice and pleasure in exchange for the real loss of these qualities through alienated labour it integrated people within the general system of exploitation by encouraging them to define their id entities, desires and interests in terms of possessing commodities and it is functional in that consumer culture offers experiences ideally designed to vomit workers in the form of alienated labour.(Slater, Consumer Culture and Modernity, 1997, p121)Slater comes to the above through his study of the development of political economics from Marx to Smith, the Frankfurt School to Soper (1981) and Doyal and Gough (1991). He uses the issue of modernity as his framework. In the above quote he talks of capitalism as essentially a cycle of loss. He also argues that culture produces the demand for this capitalism in the first place and that therefore if all objects of consumption are meaningful this implicates them in the wider field of cultural reproduction (Slater, 1997, p.5).The following looks briefly at this social reproduction from the perspective of Bourdieu and education. It does this in order to see how individuality and community actually fit within contemporary society. This give s an opportunity to see how political mechanisms use social structures for the production of specific communities.Bourdieu (1983, cited in Webb, Schirato Donaher, 2000) argues that schools are mechanisms for social reproduction. In this example, they are mechanisms for reproducing social inequalities through their policies and practises. For example, Mercier and Harold (2003) demonstrate that the religiously and culturally generated westernised ideal of the heterosexual family unit finds expression in school documentation. This raises the question of favoritism. Whitton, Sinclair, Barker, Nanlohy and Nosworthy (2004) list the forms of discrimination likely to be met in teaching ranging from airstream to academic ability.How each school accepts, rejects or translates these terms of reference seems to depend on its own cultural and educational version of Bourdieus habitus (Schirato Yell, 2000). For example, schools that respect difference may act firmly to stamp out evidence of se xism under the banner or anti-bullying. Their reaction may be just as firm against the somewhat more recognised discriminatory forms of racism (Lareau McNamara, 1999 Sandercock, 2003). In understanding the reactions to these issues, the values placed on social inclusion finds expression through applied social reproduction. For example, translation of another degree from another country into a qualification recognised abroad can take a renegotiation of Bourdieus cultural capital (Schirato Yell, 2000). If the issue to be re-evaluated is race or sexuality, the space for it in the culture determines the procedures necessary to move from isolation to inclusion. This can be empowered or disabled by the values placed upon it.To take this a step further would perhaps be to recognise this example as showing the vulnerability of individuality when it is beyond specific economic value systems. Social, economic and political discourses can perhaps be seen as reflecting and manipulating the va lue systems applied to educational institutions. As Robert Doherty (Journal of educational Enquiry, 2003) puts it, social exclusion may be perpetuated through deliberate institutional, personalized and political ambiguity. If there were an economic value to be placed on the people involved, the situation may be very different.Berger asserts that capitalism does operate by the principle of self-interest (Religion and Liberty interview, 2004). However, he then goes on to divide the situations individuals occupy. For example, a business person may well be a parent and apply different ethics and attitudes to each area. Therefore, whilst prospered businesses require an central self-interest, the same person may have a more altruistic approach in other areas. When Broom and Selznick (1979) explain culture from a framework of social organisation, they show how different underlying values affect the individual.Culture is the design and the prescription, the composite of guiding values an d ideals(Broom Selznick, Essentials of Sociology, 1979, p.57)AndStatements of need are by their very nature profoundly springiness up with assumptions about how people would, could or should live in their society needs are not only social but also political in that they involve statements about social interests and projects.(Slater, Consumer Culture and Modernity, 1997, introduction)In this context, consumerism takes culture, re-designs or creates need and draws an illusion to create a contemporary image of individuality. The politics of a market economy apparently has to conform to support this in order to support its economy.However, one way of assessing how individualism stands in relation to a balance of power between culture and economics is to look at some of the recent studies into downsizing. Whilst not new this is an individual choice and a reaction to discontent with contemporary society. In Hamiltons (2003) examination of what he terms a sickness derived from affluence, he sees down shifters as the standard bearers in the revolt against consumerism (p.207). They represent a move away from humans as consumerist objects and return to values based not on how much they own and earn, but on their value as people. However, this is still an expression of individuality and it is not a return to community or family values. In this book Hamilton tracks the changes from the classical economists view of economy where the aim was to quantify how to develop a societys wealth. He takes in the voices of dissent such as Veblen (1925) and Galbraith (1958) that sought-after(a) to warm against the growth of consumerism not as a panacea but more as a cultural poison. Other warnings came in the forms of nations approach to their pronunciations on economics. Where policy makers and politicians need seemingly factual tools to communicate with their electorate, economics can provide. However, Hamilton uses the example of Kuznets warnings regarding reducing a nations succe ssfulness to a measurement based on national income (p.13). These provided something of a glowering floor above which consumerism and the individual continued to thrive but at a lower place which a widening gap was forming. It could be seen as a hollowing out, an undermining, of the values that had held people together, but perhaps that is too idealistic. When he comes to the unchallenged rise of neo-liberalism (p.10) Hamilton uses the discontent within rich societies to demonstrate how wealth and consumerism have failed the individual. He points out the essential fact that individuals have to act in their own interests in order to support consumerism. From this point it is easy to make the ricochet to the illusion of the individual as some-one with free choice.These illusory factors are perhaps products in themselves. For example, Lasch (1978) looks at the human condition as predisposed to narcissism. If this is so then illusions and ideals, as recognised by Bordieu (1990), are allowed to distance themselves from reality through altering systems of belief. For example, Bordieu uses the example of social roles such as monarchy to show how culture endows roles within specific structures (1990) and creates the person in that image. He recognises social functions are social fictions (p.195). Yet again, images are presented in place of realities. employ to this is change. Lasch states that the degeneration of politics in spectacle (1978, p.81) has led to the transformations of policy making into publicity (1978, p.81). He continues with identification of this distance between image production and reality. He explains how disempowerment, and alienation, occurs due to these images becoming the focal points. Whilst these two points of view may quit on other issues, they agree on idea that images of power brood the reality (Lasch, 1978, p.81). But where do these images and illusions find their genesis? In develop reproduction of ideals? In the production of exp ected stereotypes? Is the notion of the family unit replaced not only by a unit of commercialism but by an image of itself and its role in social structures? Both Bordieu and Lasch recognise the impossibilities of endowing an illusion with responsibility.Another method of judging how the community fits with politics is to look what happens with migration, such as with the Italian culture. This is diachronicly strongly networked, in part due to the city state mentality and late unification of the country. Amici, vicini, parenti (friends, neighbours, relatives) as the saying goes are still a composite force in Italian society. The answers as to why community spirit should have resisted degradation damp than in many other technologically advanced societies has been much explored. One answer stems from the weakness of the political bodies and lack of trust in the ability of a politics to support the nation. These seem to be one of the fundamental causes of continued community interdep endence. If this is true, then the link between politics and a consumer society is evidently very strong. Whilst Italy does not in any way lack consumerist ideals, it maintains the community through a distrust of political spin and lack of longevity (although Berlusconi has succeeded where many have failed perhaps aided by owning some of the television stations).This can be taken further by looking at how Italian reacted to migration. For example, how did the Italians who migrated to America react? According to Gardaphe (undated), they were constantly negotiating their relationship between the local cultures of their origin and of their land of immigration. It is evoke to find that self-image of Italian American individuals is affected by whether they are integrated into the structures of power associated with that communityWhere the local identities are strong is where Italian Americans are an integral part of political and social infrastructure it is weak where there is little o r no connection to that community.(Gardaphe, undated)This would agree with the idea that competitive individualism plays two roles in society. It could be said that an egocentric, consumerist attitude where the self is important above all else plays into the hands of the illusion of modern society. However, the above Italian American example seems to show that community needs to involve all aspects of society in order to provide a strong, sticky balance of powers.To a degree, this essay has been broader in its approach than hoped. However, it has tried to patronise the view that there are many elements responsible for community decline. It has looked at the rise of individuality from its roots as a part of historical community the Enlightenment and Renaissance to the extremes of alienation brought about by competitive individualism. The essay has looked briefly at education from the perspective of Bourdieu and his theories on social reproduction. It has also looked at migration to see what happens to a particular community then. In summary, the rise of competitive individualism seems to be more negative than positive. It has not provided the happiness that it promised, yet the illusion of freedom makes it worth while. Throughout the essay, illusion has been a focal point for both economy and culture. The essay has looked at propaganda and spin as tools of the market place and politics and produces of illusion. This emphasises the division between reality and illusion. Whilst the essay agrees with Bourdieu that the reality of social institutions is that they do attempt to reproduce the societies and cultures they come from, it also agrees that politics and the market create the ideal for their own ends. Therefore, competitive individualism is just one part of the re-definition of community. However, where culture will change in accordance with society, individualism is a basic essential of a capitalist economy without which the market cannot operate in the form we now know it.ReferencesAchbar, M Wintonick, P. (1992). Manufacturing Consent Noem Chomsky and the Media. A feature documentary. Quebec, Canada needed Illusions.Albritton, R., Itoh, M., Westra, R. Zeuge, A. (eds) (2001). Phases of Capitalist Development. Hampshire PalgraveAlexander, I. (1997) The Civilized Market Corporations, Conviction and the Real Business of Capitalism. Oxford, UK finishing touch Publishing Ltd.Allen, R. (consultant Ed) (2002). The Penguin Concise English Dictionary. 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