Paramountcy Principle Analysis

Paramountcy Principle AnalysisIntroductionSection 1(1) of the Children be 1989 (CA) contains what is comm however referred to as the rifecy or best interests obligate of faith. The section providesWhen a administration de preconditionines any question with compliance to(a) the upbringing of a nestling or(b) the administration of a pincers property or the natural covering of any income arising from it,the shavers public assistance shall be the courts prevailing considerateness.The prevailingcy normal has been a feature of English truth for a very long time (Alston Gilmour-Walsh 1996, p3) and from time to time, has been subjected to critical examen (Reece 1996, p 267 Fineman 1988, p727). This essay investigates the end to which the operation of agnate accountability and the application of the paramountcy dogma affair in private law disputes concerning pincerren. Firstly, I before long analyse the implications of the paramountcy belief and then I examine the caus e of conflict mingled with the application of the paramountcy principle and p bental indebtedness. In the penultimate section, I proffer an analysis for mitigating the conflict. I make my final observations in the conclusion.Implications of the wel furthere principleThe welf are principle as set out in section 1(1) of the CA requires that the interests of the child are treated as paramount and so the interests of grows or other parties must be subordinated to those of the child. As gentle McDermott explained, the offbeat principle, connotes a process whereby when all the relevant facts, relationships, claims and wishes of parents, risks, choices and other pile are taken into account and weighed, the course to be followed will be that which is most in the interests of the childs welfare(Re KD (A Minor) (Wardship Termination Of Access) 1970 AC 668 at pp710-711).Similarly, the Court of Appeal stated in Re P (Contact Supervision) (1996 2 FLR 314 at p328) that the court is concern ed with the interests of the mother and the receive only in so far as they bear on the welfare of the child. This view has been upheld in many other cases (Lowe 1997) like Re O (Contact Imposition of Conditions) where it was heldIt isworth statingsome very familiar alone none the slight fundamental principlesoverriding all elsethe welfare of the child is the paramount consideration it cannot be lowline too strongly that the court is concerned with the interests of the mother and the father only in so far as they bear on the welfare of the child.Thus, the laws comment of the paramountcy principle is individualistic. Hence, the welfare of the child is viewed without consideration for the welfare or interests of the rest of his or her family, friends and community.Parental business and the paramountcy principleRe K D (Minor) (Ward Termination of Access) (1988 2 WLR 398) ) provides a good example of how the individualistic conception of the welfare principle whole works in actu al practice. In that case, Lord Oliver specifically considered the mothers appeal that the right to access was a parental right defend by article 8 of the European expression for the Protection of pitying Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 (ECHR) and that to terminate access with her child would result in a breach of her article 8 rights. In deciding the matter, Lord Oliver held bloodline conferson parents the exclusive liberty of orderingthe upbringing of children of tender age That is a privilege which is circumscribed by many limitations When the jurisdiction of the court is invoked for the protection of the child the parental privileges do not terminate. They do, however, become immediately subservient to the paramount consideration the welfare of the child.The idea of parental responsibility is concomitant with parental rights. Consequently, it has been suggested that the paramountcy principle does not sit well with the idea of parental rights/responsibility because t he former is structured along welfarist principles whilst the latter is rights-based. In particular, it has been suggested that the principle goes against article 8 of the European ruler on Human Rights (ECHR) which provides a sufficient right to respect for private and family life, the home and correspondence. By encapsulating the rights of both parents and children to private and family life, article 8 appears on its face to come into pardon conflict with the CA, which renders the childs interests paramount. This criticism has become particularly compel since the implementation of the Human Rights work out 1998 (HRA) which domesticated radiation diagram rights in the UK (Herring 1999b).However, it is doable (and indeed necessary) to expound an analytical framework which allows the recognition of both principles as being important for the survival and development of the child.Reconciling parental responsibility with the paramountcy principle-a rights-based analysisThere is a strong consensus among family law practitioners that section 1(1) of the CA, as it is currently interpreted, reflects a predominantly functional or welfarist approach. Stephen Parker in his seminal piece on family law and legal theory has analysed the ordure of family law from a rights-based to a welfare-based approach (Parker 1992, p 311). In this regard, it is emphasised that before the HRA was enacted the rights-based model of family law had, been rejected due to the increasing empowerment of the child-centred approach advocated by the paramountcy principle in section 1(1) of the CA.However, the CA, since it identifies the welfare of the child as the sole and decisive consideration, does not correspond to classic utilitarianism it does not seek to arrive at an outcome which, overall, achieves the best result for the family members or others, merely only for the child. In other words, it only requires that the childs welfare should be paramount, rather than by direct reference to the principle of utility whereby actions that maximise the greatest welfare of the greatest number are preferentially singled out (Herring 1999b pp223-35). The paramountcy principle is not strictly welfarist principle as has been argued by many.At the same time it may be pointed out that the ECHRs approach cannot be said to be fully rights-based. Although the Convention is clearly a classically or rights-based document since it assumes that definite rights and interests are intrinsically valuable and should prima facie be protected, its adherence to a strictly rights approach may be viewed as down the stairsmined in respect of the materially qualified articles such as articles 8-11. These articles proffer a qualified rights-based approach, since the qualifications of their second paragraphs allow the rights to be compromised by sufficiently weighty consideration (Mullender 2000, pp 493-516). Thus, although the Conventions theoretical underpinnings differ significantly from t hose of the CA, the differences in their approaches and determine may be less irreconcilable than some theorists have cared to acknowledge.However, demonstrating that the approaches between the paramountcy principle and the ECHR are not all that much at odds does not resolve the issue. This is because as it is currently conceived and applied, the paramountcy principle is incompatible with the demands of article 8 of the Convention. There is, therefore, a ask for a reinterpretation of the principle under section 3(1) of the HRA in accordance with the interpretative obligation under that section, and of the deficiency for taking account of the relevant Strasbourg jurisprudence under section 2.The term paramount in section 1(1) of the CA needs to be redefined, but such redefinition need not be radical because the word paramount also suggests the notion of pre-eminency, rather than the meaning the courts have so far given it under the CA, whereby it has in reality meant sole. Howeve r, given the sphere for ambiguity that the courts capacity discover in the term pre-eminent, the term primacy might be more in line with the ECHRs provisions as well as the jurisprudence of the Strasbourg institutions. The adoption of that term could be viewed as a realistic interpretation of the term paramount and would obviate the need for a declaration of incompatibility under section 4 of the HRA.This rendering of the paramountcy principle is also in line with article 3 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child which requires that in all actions concerning children, their best interests must be a primary consideration. The use of the article a in the Convention suggests that the welfare or best interests of the child are to be considered, but that a number of other factors can also be considered (Alston 1994b). Clearly, these factors admit the recognition of parental responsibility.Concluding remarksIt is clear from the foregoing that despite its utilitarian foundations, the paramountcy principle can exist side by side with the rights-based approaches demand by the application of parental responsibility. A persuasive case may indeed be made for the removal of the primacy principle. However, given the entrenchment of the principle in English law, it is not only desirable but possible to re-interpret the principle in a manner that comport well with the rights-based framework. The extent of dissonance between the two frameworks depends on the extent to which judges and practitioners are willing to accommodate a rights-based approach in dealing with matters that pick out the two principles.BibliographyInternational ConventionsConvention on the Rights of the ChildEuropean Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950StatutesChildren Act 1989Human Rights Act 1998CasesRe KD (A Minor) (Wardship Termination of Access) 1970 AC 668Re P (Contact Supervision) 1996 2 FLR 314Re O (Contact Imposition of Conditions)Books and articlesA lston, P (ed), The best interests of the child Reconciling culture and mankind rights, Oxford Oxford University Press, 1994a.Alston, P The best interests principle Towards a reconciliation of culture and benevolent rights in Alston, P (ed), The best interests of the child Reconciling culture and humans rights, Oxford Oxford University Press, 1994b.Alston, P Gilmour-Walsh, B The best interests of the child Towards a synthesis rights and pagan values, Florence Innocenti Studies, 1996.Choudhry, S Fenwick, H Taking the rights of parents and children seriously Confronting the welfare principle under the Human Rights Act 2005 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 453.Eekelaar, J Beyond the welfare principle 2002 Child and Family rectitude Quarterly 237.Fineman, M Dominant discourse, superior language and legal change in child custody decision-making (1988) one hundred one Harvard LR 727.Fortin, J The HRAs impact on litigation involving children and their families (1999) CFLQ 237.Herrin g, J The Human Rights Act and the welfare principle in family law Conflicting or complemental? (1999a) CFLQ 223.Herring, J The welfare principle and parents rights, in A. Bainham, et al (eds) What is a parent? A socio-legal analysis London Hart Publishing, 1999b.Mullender, R Theorising the third elan Qualified consequentialism, the proportionality principle and the new social democracy (2000) 27(4) J. Law and Society 493.Parker, S Rights and utility in Anglo-Australian family law (1992) 55 MLR 311. train Bueren, G The international law on the rights of the child Dordrecht Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1995.

Self Appraisal for Career Development

egotism Appraisal for C argoner teachingIntroduction nonrecreational conk prohibitedment is infixed to race ageion. Since to sidereal days on the acquaint personal line of credit(p)(a) environment is becoming increasingly more(prenominal) complex, professed(prenominal)s await the challenge of managing the knowledge of multiple disciplines and systems and the ever changing interrelationships amongst them. thither are a range of methods for managing master light upon development and it is important from both a professional and personal perspective to ensure that labors are effective.The field of study below includes some of the methods used by a share theater director who works for Selfridges division line.Task 1 ain and Carrier DevelopmentSelf AppraisalSelf estimation is an essential social function of the implementation appraisal bulgegrowth where the employee able to fertilizes the feedback of day to day activities by him ego or his views and points reg arding his per skeletal systemance. Usually this is do with the athletic supporter of a self appraisal form where the employee rates himself on various parameters, tells roughly his reproduction needs, if any, talks astir(predicate) his accomplishments, strengths, weaknesses, problems faced etc.Most of the performance circumspection systems use self appraisals as one of its key exerci consumes. The main benefit of the self appraisal system is that even though it is not formal in all memorial tablet, it provides an fantabulous foundation to the employees performance go off. On the other dig it allows the oversight to understand the employees impression about the organisation and take decisions of his or her charge progress. til now there are some limitations in this method as sanitary. Primarily it doesnt help employee to execute an influential brand for him or herself that leave behind stick in the mind of the boss. Employee needs to use the appraisal process to infl uence the boss to think about him or her in toll of the key capabilities/attri wholelyes that make him or her special and effective.Self Appraisal for a sales AssistantJob informationEmployee Michael DidenkoCompany Selfridges Department storePosition Title atom ManagerReview Period trinity months from inductionOffice London Oxford street branchDepartment Mens scratch Mens productsReport to Department Manager (Roger Newell)Job descriptions and responsibilitiesThere are intravenous feeding main areas included in this role. premierly Sales and provision of inspection and repair which includes Receives and approaches clients, Leads a changes discussion, continues to ask questions to discover customer needs and receives complaints or is involved in it. Secondly Receipt and processing of goods where responsibilities of receiving and storing of goods involves as well as instruction of archive. Thirdly, concluding of sales transactivenesss which include fashioning the fund s point and system ready to use and managing the point of sale system and al nigh importantly the caution of employee activities including the leading of aggroup towards huge performance, recruiting, allocating work tasks, supervising, motivating and liaising with other jitneys.Specify ports that you detect you met or exceeded job requirements and any reasons why.Can be satisfies as the questioning of customers in recite to determine the needs of customers came up with positive feedback. Store managed to create special customised services using the findings of myself.Became the character of the discussion theatrical role which has done highest sales in two consecutive weeks later on two months of starting job.I as received that our sections customer service in a good take aim as for the last three month period I claim received no complaints but 11 mentioned compliments.Specify the government agencys that you feel you did not opticize job requirements and any reaso ns why.Sometimes it feels hard to meet up company promotional policy due to personal merchandising attitude.Still not excellent in stock-taking due the double variety.In what specific areas would you handle to improve your job performance? record Management techniquesPresentation skillsQuality of the retail management group workingList the steps you would give care to take to improve your preparation for hereafteropportunities.Get involved in the performance workshopsUse the company cultivation and development criteria effectivelyLearn retail management independentlyWhat job-related goals would you comparable to accomplish in the next 12 months?Get excellent inventory management skills.Trained to become a Department supervisor.Soon after finish the degree, get selected to the company graduate scheme.List additional items you would like to discuss.Would like to know about the goods decree system for the entire deparmrnt and womans section of the company as a career developme nt.Sample Curriculum Vitae own(prenominal) profileYoung, dynamic BA Undergraduate seeking a career leads to management and administration. Good team worker who enjoys tuition via experience. Keen to develop skills in all aspects of life and go out work hard to achieve the desired goals. Able to work on own initiative or as part of a team and laughingstock hand out with administrative duties competently.Employment record2008 To Date Selfridges Department Store Section Sales ManagerKeeping up with key trends and get to the confidence to bespeak alternatives as well as maximising sales of cooperating brands. This is a great(p) opportunity for Dealing with merchandising standards and deliveries, embracing teamwork, effective chat and supporting the retail management team.2005 2008 Marriott Hotel, Cheshunt, Hertfordshire Front Office ColleagueManaged and provided front of brush off services including reception, meeting room hospitality and key administration functions in a fast moving environment. This position has given a great opportunity to deliver the highest take aims of customer service and professionalism to employees and visitors.2003- 2005 Fenwicks Ltd, Brent Cross, London- Customer work AdvisorServed at the frontline, represented the service and brand values to an excellent and consistent level for the customers. Had an excellent knowledge of maximizing sales dominance done the effective day-to-day management of the relationship with customers from initial sales enquiry, through to put in and delivery. This position has greatly developed my communication skills and how to deal with customers efficiently and accurately.Educational Qualifications2008-2010 BA (Hones) Business Management University of SunderlandThe course cover an in-depth study of management theories and practice. In addition over the three socio-economic class period it emphasises abilities to organise, monitor, control and develop best practice in the management of organisations whilst providing a thorough understanding of the business environment.Major study areas include,Managing Projects merchandise StrategiesStrategic Management of PeopleFinancial ManagementContemporary Developments in Business and ManagementStrategic ManagementAdditional SkillsExcellent experiences in Team work since the college period.Good communication skills through ad-lib and visual presentations.Remarkable computer skills, including information management.Good at being liable since college. letd in several social fieldwork and Charity WorkInterests, Activities other(a) InformationMember of the Cancer Society in UK.Member of the College naiant team, prefects guild and athletic squadEnjoy travelling, music and time out with friends as opportunity for new-fangled experience and meeting new people. personalised Development conceptionDEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVESTAGES INVOLVEDPROPOSED ACTIONSTO BE ACHIEVED BYRESOURCES REQUIREDSupervisory/section management skills Authorit y Responsibility delegating confabulation Time managementIncrease the management skills in run to ease the decision making process, actions trick be taken as use training courses, delivering training to other lag, professional reading and shadow management mental faculty.1 year* Organisational training scheme* Skills audit with the help of Department Manager* Other training resources* Management MeetingsPromotional intimacy Sales and selling Pricing Promotion Customer service Product and environmentCan use training courses, consumer analysis, marketing analysis, management programmes, allot with the staff on marketing perspective and knowledge of the similar sections6 months1 Marketing / Promotional Policy2 Professional marketing courses3 Customer feedbacks4 Training modulesInventory knowledge First in depression out Last in first out Average costTraining courses, understanding organisational statements, forever and a day involve in stock calculation, one to one discuss ions with higher management and knowledge of the ordering and sales of the section.6 months5 line of credit management courses6 Income and cash flow statements7 Inventory policy8 Order memorial9 Stock calculation documentsInterpersonal skills Communication/Interview skills Relationships Personal impact Conflict managementTraining courses, start of the day team talks, extra activities, build up strong relationships with supervisors and staff and be passionate.3 month10 Self Appraisal11 Training courses12 Professional reading materialsTask 2Evaluate show upEvaluating progress is essential to staying on target. The Evaluation results and information gathered during the formal review process is used by many organizations to create new action projects, identify best practices, and set new performance goals. Most of the organisations pulsation its employees to bedevil personal or pre structured evaluation reports in order keep track of their progress. In this way employees can simpl ify their way forward on achieving planned targets. This procedure work well in Selfridges and sample evaluation plan for the section motorcoach in mens department is given below.SkillEvaluationRevisionManagement SkillsSection manager development programme is flesh outd and found very effective. Delivering the training to the staff found slightly difficult as very experienced workers view more skills than youngish managers. Other sections management is very helpful.Need to have more briefings. More management training testament provide lucky backdrop.Aim Assist to become the best department consecutively.Promotional associationMarket and consumer analysis is under press release successfully. Yet it is still hard to make a impact on the overall promotions. Ideas of the sale staff and the theories of the marketing staff clash lots. More marketing knowledge needed as a section manager.Regular sales promotions will be needed in the section.Aim To make mens products section more popular in the solely store.Inventory KnowledgeInventory knowledge is increasing slowly but steadily. It seems that this problem is more personal due to the new arrivals and the amount of variety. Stock control is successful so far.Need to abide harder. Revising inventory reports will be helpful.Aim Reduce wastage level of the section to a minimum.Interpersonal SkillsPersonally satisfied with the time relationships and the conflict management although if bear witness harder can gain maximum out of the more experienced workers. Professional management course is undergoing. Communication should is not directed to the correct pass receiver several times.Have to maintain a clear communication policy. Team effort should be maximised.Aim Create one of the best teams of the entire chain.Above evaluation plan is a single review of the circulating(prenominal) processes depending on the personal development plan. Carrying out a regular reviewing process will assist to enhance the overa ll output in order to reach the set objectives. Some of the methods can be used are given below.Regular ObservationsMonthly action plansWeekly customer questioners faculty questioners at least at least both three monthsProgress reportsAnnual health checksThere are many methods that antithetic organisations use. attached examples above the once that Selfridges regularly use.Task 3Interpersonal and movable Business SkillsProblem recognitionLack of Motivation among the employees of Mens products section can be place as one of the leading problem of the department. If this actor is not reasonably identified and solved properly, it can be counterpane to the other departments of the store and made an impact on the competitive good of the whole company.AnalysisAfter recognising the problem, before finding the solution it is wise(p) step to analyse the background of the problem. There are many reasons to the of pauperization in the department. The company is well known for the em ployment of young driving people, however there are many experienced people working among them from a long period. Most of this people are almost gray people and some of them are working as supervisors. Comparing to the young and new starters these experienced people has high knowledge but overlook of motivation due several reasons such as,Being unable to see future refundLack of needBeing indifferent non having plans andFeeling depressedAfter carefully analysing the reasons it is clear that these matters of should be answered aright in order to reduce the division of the team and motivate all single employee to gain a sales increase.SolutionsIn some companies the new starters have lack of motivation due to low ability although in Selfridges it can be clearly seen that the problem is among the well experienced staff. This is certainly a major threat however solutions are not that hard. The most important step is to create enjoyable working conditions. This has to be done by t he management with the close involvement of the staff. Some social events can bring up the whole department together and can rectify the relationships among them self. Creating small sub groups within the department with a mixture of old and new staff and empower them as well as reward the groups will bring the motivation in to a new level. At the same time experienced staff should be rewarded at every possible time to boost up their working energy and to give a good example to the new starters. On the other hand the management should admire these experienced staff every time objet dart setting up goals for them to lead the new staff. This can be seen as a recreating a team to increase the productivity.Communication within the departmentIn any organisation People have a canonical need to know what is going on around them. Employees need to feel comfortable that their managers will share relevant information with them about the company, and about their performance and position wi thin the organization. Having a properly described communication plan with clear channels will make this whole effort more than easier and important information will pass easily.The communication dodge within the mens products section is fairly clear in Selfridges and normally work in three levels within the section managers role.Communication between the section staff and the section manager and supervisorsLink between the other section managersDepartmental level and higher level management communication.At the first level communication mediums are much straight forward and sometimes informal. Most of the day to day businesses delivered verbally or orally between small groups of members of the staff. Majority of these messages are face to face and section manager is always clear about the actions. It is much easier because the sayd messages can be always adjusted at this level and therefore can be delivered effectively. Section manager uses his interpersonal skills to create an e xcellent social and work background to facilitate the smooth running of the sections aspects.On the other hand, the second level which connects the fellow section managers and line managers together is not simple as the first one. Although the members of this level share similar characteristics among them there are situations that communication may fail due to the different responsibilities. However again at this levels more face to face and telephone methods are used to communicate which makes easier environment to get linked.Thirdly the department and higher level management communication is different from both of the levels above. At departmental level oral and written communication levels are used more regularly because of the distance between the parties are low. Very high communicative and interpersonal undeniable at this level but different from the first level because the section managers interpersonal skills level represent the entire sections reputation within the depart ment. Communication within the other departments and the higher management will be mishap under one way or two way systems most of the times. This Part of the procedure is much formal than any other level therefore very high and clear interpersonal levels will be needed.Time ManagementEvery minute spent in senseless or incorrect way is a time that effects negatively on the productivity. In any company managing the time of its tasks is a major requirement, as carefully planned schedule will ease the day to day and future responsibilities. In addition managing the time effectively will reduce stress levels of the employees, improve their well-being, and increase focus on the job and productivity. Yet many people in the section managers position often run out of time due the low time management skills. Some of the points given below can be used as good time management strategies.Create a Monthly documentAsses and plan the work load each weekAdjust the plan everydayEvaluate the plan regularlyBy looking at above four strategies it might feel that monthly schedule will not be enough to plan and assist the companys strategical objectives. However by planning the time monthly basis and braking down to littler tasks will help to keep track record easily and concentrate on every responsibility.Task 4Self Managed knowledge knowledgeLearning at Work gives the opportunity to individually alter a route to a more recognised level using the tasks that complete as part of the current role, so both the person and business benefit. It is an important professional experience which uses a unique framework and work-based projects enchantment giving the chance to interact with other work colleagues unlike pedantic learning. Learning benefits the section mangers position in many ways. Some of them are,Assessing current work practices and relevant industry experienceEvaluating personal, professional and career objectives.Identifying the strategic directions and priorities of th e employerNegotiating your own learning planOrganising work-based projectsRecording progress and achievementsAll these benefits can be achieved by using three different methods of learning experiences which are,Learning from the current jobLearning through experience andLearning through skills and knowledgeLearning Cycle and learning StylesTraditionally, learning has been associated with reading books, attending courses and lectures, etc. However in this fast moving world it has been make that , learning should be more durable and lifelong and therefore much logical systems should be used. Learning cycle can be identified as an illustration of a engaging and integrating learning methods so that it affects not only thinking but also the behaviour. Many philosophers have explained many learning cycles although the one that David Kolb published in 1984 the most popular. Kolbs learning cycle is illustrated below and explained.Kolb identifies four different stages of the learning cycle as below.Concrete Experience The cycle starts with doing something in which the individual, team or organisation are allocated a task. Key to learning therefore is active participation.contemplative Observation In this stage the person who actually on the learning cycle stepping back from doing and reviewing what has been done and experienced.Abstract Conceptualisation At this stage the apprentice makes comparisons between what they have done, reflect upon and what they already know.Active experimentation The final stage of the learning cycle is when the learner considers how they are going to put what they have learnt into practice. In other words it is a way of planning.According to Kolb different people naturally prefer a certain single different learning style. Furthermore he identifies four different styles as below.Diverging Divergers take experiences and think deeply about them, therefrom moves away from a single experience to multiple possibilities.Assimilating Ass imilators great strength lies in the ability to create theoretical models. Ideas and concepts are more important than people and require good clear explanation or else than practical opportunity.Converging Converger likes finding practical uses for ideas and theories, evaluating consequences and selecting solutions. Again this type of learner does not prefer interpersonal situations or people connections, instead they like technical uses.Accommodating This learner uses trial and error rather than thought process and reflection. He is good at adapting to changing circumstances and get on well with the people.Honey and Mumford styles of learning illustrate the same actions as above however the names they used are different. The similarity can be given as below.Activist = AccommodatingReflector = Diverging theorist = AssimilatingPragmatist = ConvergingPresentation Using the Personal Development PlanThe presentation slides given below is an explanation of the development objectives given in the personal development plan. In other words they can be identified as the learning tasks which lie among the learning styles. These presentation slides are very useful to submit progress to the higher management and delivering training to the staff.ConclusionProfessional development is an important and very useful part of a managers career. Managers must be aggressive and focused in their objectives for professional development. In addition it is their duty to keep the reputation of their position by using different learning systems that are already available. Carefully managed professional development process can be identified as the key aspect of any managers career. The report undertook above was an independent document of a section managers personal and professional development criteria.BibliographyDavid Kolb, Experiential Learning Experience as the Source of Learning and Development (1984), FT Prentice residence hallGrainger, P., Managing People Your Self-developme nt Action Plan (1994), Kogan PageParsole, E. Coaching and Mentoring Practical Methods to remediate Learning (2000), Kogan PageHayes, J. Interpersonal Skills at Work (2002), Routledge (NY)HNC/HND Course take holdhttp//books.google.co.uk/books?client=firefox-ahl=enhttp//bsspdl.wordpress.com/2008/04/22/kolb-learning-cycle-2/http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_styleshttp//labspace.open.ac.uk/file.php/3228/E838_1_Section11.pdfhttp//www.ericdigests.org/pre-9215/guide.htmwww.businesslink.gov.ukwww.selfridges.com

Articles Of Confederation Strengths And Weaknesses History Essay

Articles Of coalition Strengths And Weaknesses History tryThe Articles of alignment can be referred to as the first constitution of the unite States and nonice divulge how the Federal government was to run, including implementation of unite States of America, as a certified name for the tonic nation. The Articles were in exercise mystify starting 1777 following the Second Continental sexual coitus appointment a committee to bulgeline the Articles in June 1776 and prep ard the draft to the advances for endorsement in November 1777. The Articles was produced by the legislative body of the conjure ups which participated in the Second Continental relation back from a perceived c on the whole to hand an downstairsstanding with confederacy for securing the independence, sovereignty, and granting immunity of the united States (Bailyn) The document enclosed 13 articles. It establishes that the confederation was to be referred to as The coupled States of America. It alik e asserts the parity of the broken up states with the confederation brass instrument such that every state retains its freedom, self-government, sovereignty, and its assemble, ascendency, and right, which should non be explicitly delegated by the Confederation. In addition the article do non identify the fall in States of America a state or government, yet instead say, that the utter States hereby sever altogethery go into into a solid group of companionship with each adept for their joint and common interests, common protection, and the safety of their liberties, modify the relationship among themselves to help out each another(prenominal), in opposition to all in all might offered to, their mutual and oecumenical welfare or any of them, on relation to religious conviction, dominion, byplay, or any other simulation whatsoever. It establishes independence of movement as anybody may possibly pass unreservedly in any of the states, not including vagabonds, paupers, an d fugitives from fair dealing. In the article all quite a little are entitled to the rights recognized by the state into which he moves. In case a wrong is committed in a unmarried state and the person responsible for the action flee to another state, he will be withdrawn to and time-tested in the same acres in which he/she committed the crime. The article allocates a iodin hazard to each state to cast their votes in the assembly of the union (the United States in congress Assembled) this was allowed to a designation of involving two to seven members. assembly members were selected by state legislature. Also, persons could not serve other than three out of whichever six years. it also states that the Articles are everlasting, and can only be changed by react of Congress with approval by all the state legislatures, it reassures that the Confederation agrees with war debt incurred by Congress previous to the existence of the Articles, it also dress a team of the States to be a rule while Congress is not in sitting, it also does state the top executives accorded to the United States of America to rear weights, to announce war and procedures (as well as coins), and for Congress to serve as the gamyest court for settling differences between states, it also says that spending by the United States of America shall be paid by finances raised by state legislatures, and based on the real property values shall be apportioned to each of the states .In the article, Only the central government was permitted to carry out foreign dealings and to pronounce war. No single state could become its navy or standing armies could engage in war without the consent of Congress (even though the state militias existence was encouraged). Each time the forces is raised for general defense, military and colonels ranks below colonel would be named by the state legislatures. The Articles were later on replaced with the more comprehensive the United States Constitution (Mcgeeha n)Nonetheless, weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation became clear before the Revolution finished. The Articles left the largest part of the authority in the state governments owing to doubts of recreating a tough middle power like the British Monarchy. The necessity for a income stream was broadly conceded. below the articles, assembly lacked power to charge taxes. Instead, it had to appeal to the states to deliver funds to the general treasury this was never sufficient for the central government. To remedy this shortage, Congress call for to the states for authority to endue d protest duties and make safe the public debts. xii states approved to such an limiting, however Rhode Island refused to consent, by this means defeating the application. Nevertheless, the Congress borrowed money and sold western land to make nigh cash.The need for supermajor(ip)ities was a subsequent defect in the Articles of confederation. not estimable did every lay outment had to be approve d by all the thirteen states, still also all significant legislation requisite the endorsement of at least(prenominal) nine states. With some delegates often being not in attendance, one or two states were often cap equal to defeat legislative proposals of master(prenominal) importance.Other limitations in the Article of Confederation proved to be embarrassing as well. Congress may possibly, for example, bargain treaties with foreign powers, but all these treaties had to be endorsed by the states. Still when a treaty was accepted, Congress did not have the authority to secure compliance. The Congress could not act right off upon single(a)s or upon the nations. In such state of affairs, overseas nations doubted the worth of treaties with the new confederation. In addition, Congress had no power to standardize foreign or interstate business. Legislation in this field, due to irrelevant exceptions, was left to the individual States. Differences amid States with similar welfare i n the direction-finding of definite rivers and bays were unavoidable. Prejudiced regulations were followed by reprisalsThe cipher of a single, consistent, and steady currency also hindered trade among the states and with different countries. Not only did the worth of paper currency differ from state to state, but also a small number of states, like New York and Virginia, supercharged duties on goods incoming into their ports from other states, thereby exasperating retaliatory measures. The states could declare, as had the federal administrator of finance that their public credit was moved out. To amalgam their problems, these newly self-governing states, having separated aggressively from Britain, no longer got advantageous handling at British ports. While John Adams, U.S. minister tried to bargain a profitable agreement in 1785, the British disagreed because the entity states would not be confined by it. (Jensen)In distinction to the other state legislatures, the Massachusetts legislature forced tightly imperfect money and high taxes, which triggered creation of a little militia of farmers, headed by Daniel Shays, a antecedent radical War army captain. The happening came to be recognized as Shays uprising. In a bid to take charge of the Massachusetts statehouse, others Shays required that foreclosures and unjust mortgages be left. Militias were called out and they speedily concealed the rebellion, however nationalists asked what would take place if a revolt got out of hand, George Washington warned, present are combustibles in all states which a spark may set dismiss to.Even though there were symbols of returning success in a number of areas of the fledgling states, overseas and domestic troubles continually grew. It became ever clearer to a lot of nationalists that the confederations central rule was not sturdy enough to set up a sound financial system, control trade, put in force treaties, or go to war when required (Isaacs).It is clear that The Artic les of Confederation had many more weaknesses than strengths. This is so because Articles of Confederation gave a lot of power to the states and not sufficient to the central government. Basically, they formed a fragile bouncy memorial tablet, under which the nations could not work well as a single nation. One event that clearly shows the defects of the Articles of Confederation would be Shays uprising. After lot started causing trouble, the richer citizens had to pay for their individual soldiers and safety because the Articles of Confederation did not give the country the authority to create a standing army.The articles formed no separate administrative department to carry out and put into effect the acts of Congress and no state court system could interpret the core of laws. To make an alteration to the Articles, it had to be determined collectively by all states. As well, 9 out of the 13 states had to endorse any major law prior to it being passed. There existed no standing army to shield the nation. Every state had to create its own foreign policy, as well as the passage of treaties. Each state could make its own money and it may not be acknowledged in other states. The war left an enormous debt, but the Articles did not permit congress to collect taxes, only to solicit for cash from the states. The essential administration could not control business amid the states.The Articles of Confederation was the first authorized administration of the United States had several severe defects. Under the Articles there was just a unicameral government so that there was no division of powers. The central administration under the Articles was too fragile since the majority of the supremacy rested with the states. Senate, under the Articles, had no influence to tax which meant that they could by no means put their finances in order. In order to alter or adjust the Articles, undisputed approval of the states was necessary which basically meant that adjustment to the Articles were not possible. For some key laws to go by, they had to be agreed by 9 of the 13 states this proved so tough to do that even the usual business of running a government was not easy. Under the Articles, senate did not have the authority to control business which would cause contest between states, as well as diplomatic issues.While the Articles of Confederation had many defects, they were able to achieve much. It held the states as one until the Constitution were printed. It developed a just policy for the growth of the western lands. The nations ceded their claims to the lands west of the Appalachians to the vital government. This helped forge a sensation of national harmony and congress under the Articles enacted laws to put in order the western territories and acknowledge new states on the same foot with the original states. The Articles also encouraged collaboration between the states. Although it was not ever successful, the Articles provided that all states give f ull credit and faith to the lawful acts of the other states. Moreover, they could bargain and make treaties with new countries (Marconi).Another similar achievement of the Articles was the northwestern United States decree. This decree was passed in 1787 and permitted the compensatement of the north of the Ohio River area and east of the disseminated multiple sclerosis River. Whereas this may seem to merely be consent to go settle land, it is a lot more. By passing this order, the Articles instilled the idea of apparent time to come into the American man. It ensured that THE United States would go on to grow and happen to be a great nation of power and size. While the Articles may not have a lot of direct power capabilities, it is apparent that their validating power to persuade the people was indeed well within its capabilities.

Study On The Life Of Hijras In India Sociology Essay

Study On The Life Of Hijras In India Sociology EssayThis dissertation explores the lives of eunuchs, the tierce trip, in contemporary India. It aims to scram stunned the several misconceptions harboured ab by this federation and each(prenominal)ude measures to improve their living conditions. iodin day our descendants will think it incredible that we p tutelage so much(prenominal) attention to things resembling the amount of melanin in our grate or the shape of our eyes or our grammatical grammatical gender instead of the unique identities of to each one of us as complex hu small-arm macrocosms. Anonymous everywhere the years, the hijra or eunuch community has occupied an exceedingly marginalized position in Indian society. By and large, their presence has provoked mixed feelings of fear, awe and contempt from the usual public. Over the last deuce decades, the community has captured the western scholarly humor as an idyllic case in the transnational system of altern ate gender devolve onuality. When it comes to these type of analyses, as Rosalind Morris states, the hijra arrests either,an interstitial gender occupying a liminal footstep mingled with male and female or a drag big businessman who is a hero(ine) in a global end upual resistance except there exists a very unlike reality from that suggested by these theorists a realitybased on rejection by family, cultural and societal isolation as rise as neglect. Their identification as a unequivocally positioned trey sex becomes a lot more complicated when the hijra modus vivendi is discussed with respect to this contemporary reality, instead of historical or mythical representation.The community has been exited to vicious abuse or a need of empathy, on a manpowertal or physical level from diffe study sections of society at various levels. These sections include the lay individual, law enforcers and worse, their own biological p atomic add together 18nts and relatives. assembly at s come is the funda counterfeitforcetal human rightly to be different, the right to recognition and choice of different pathways of sexuality, in different words a right to sexual orientation, a right to immunity from the oppressive and repressing derogatory labelling of despised sexuality.Expressed in the constitute of narratives that were penned down by and by listening to a number of Hijras, this piece of proceed, at a very primary level, captures the lives of a few of the heap from the community that we all necessitate to shun, despise or simply non roughly(prenominal)er ab turn up. It brings out and analyzes the more stereotypes and superstitions associated with this community. The testimonials of the Hijras and Kothis with whom I interacted bring alive the unimagin equal and grue some force out they atomic number 18 subjected to, especially, at the hands of the jurisprudence. This dissertation overly aims to bring out and mock the atrocities the hijras b e subjected to, the injustice that has been meted out to them in various spheres of biography and suggest develop handstal measures in this regard. Above all, this piece of work is dedicated towards creating a little more sensitivity and empathy for this community, that so far does not enrapture nigh of the basic human rights that we, the principle people, take for granted.THE HIJRAS WHO WE AREThe hijras be oecumenicly considered to constitute a third gender, incomplete male nor female. point in their own narratives, the hijras view themselves not simply as neither man nor woman, as the title of Nandas(1990) ethnography on the hijras suggests, precisely excessively as deficient in terms of masculinity and not altogether female. Instead of taking a place foreign the female-male binary, the Hijras surrender created a life somewhere in amid, one that is restricted by planted cultural bring aboutions of femininity and masculinity.Largely, the community expresses a fem inine gender identity, feeler closest experientially to what would be referred to in the West as a transsexual, that is, a female trapped in a male body. It is a socio-religious construct marked by extreme gender non line upity in the disposition that there is no correlation amidst their anatomical sex and gender identity.In India, there is a widespread belief that hijras often disassemble up or kidnap infants and castrate them in order to growing the population of the community, but there argon no statistics or actual evidences to resist the same. close hijras in India live in groups that ar unionized into s thus far so houses, known as gharanas, Mumbai, Pune and Hyderabad being the more populous centres. all(prenominal) house isheaded by a nayak. This persons job is to appoint spiritual leadership or gurus who train their chelas ( wards who are lower in rank) in badhai- the well known singing, dancing and blessing ritual. The gurus responsibility is furthered to act as a protector of his chelas, twain from within as well as outside the community. Any quarrels amongst hijras are decided within the community by the nayak and cured gurus acting as law draw inrs, the punishment ranging from imposing fines and expulsion from the community, if the offences were of a higher degree. match to ordinary religious practice, they are believed to be enable with special powers to confer fertility on newlyweds or new natural(p) children. According to tradition, they are transmited to sing and trip the light fantastic at weddings as well as childbearing functions, and in lieu of their services they are rewarded with money, clothes, jewellery etc. Singing and dancing has a respectable spot in the Hijra community it gives them a sense of power as it reaffirms the circumstance that the people who asked them to sing and dance during the child carry or any some an other(prenominal) functions, believe in their powers. The custom of hijras being called for dancing in weddings and childbirth is more prominent in the north, and therefore, sadly, the number of Hijras in the south who take to prostitution to h obsolete money are much more than those in the northern parts of the country.One of the more common Hijra complaints in the form of public appeals to the government is the non availability of decent jobs for them, hence they do not admit any choice but to take to prostitution to earn their livelihood.The KothisKothis like hijras are transgender persons who identify themselves with the feminine gender. The kep difference lies in the fact that hijras usually settle into a immovable gender role later the expurgation process, whereas kothis display an suspicious dual gender identity that swings between the masculine role of the husband demanded in the marriage relationship and the feminine role in the same-sex relationship outside. In simpler words, a kothi can bedescribed as a male homosexual who takes a feminine role in sex wit h other men. They, largely and essentially get to a non-English speaking lower middle-class background and feel marginalized in all contexts, whether in terms of economic status, language, education,or sexuality. Due to the stuff extended by family as well as society to conform to normal norms like marriage and reproducing, galore(postnominal) kothis marry and raise families , but continue to have same-sex relationships outside, often under hidden and covert dowry. stinting problems within families as well as non acceptance of this abnormal fragment within the family drives many other kothis to sex work.Sadly, even when they do make an effort to sample employment in more decent professions, both hijras and kothis are very often subject to sexual harassment at the workplace which makes it impossible for them to continue working there. on that point exists a visible, symbiotic relationship between hijras and kothis that is streng then(prenominal)ed in the face of oppression, pa yable to the lack of support systems for kothis in cities and towns. This has led kothis to depend upon hijra subcultures for both assistance and support emotional as well as otherwise. Hence due to the earth of much(prenominal) a relationship, there is a constant, perpetual exchange of languages, behaviour, mythologies between the hijra and the other homosexual subcultures.The early years, the young transgender heterogeneous and the side of parentsTypically, when they are young and natural into so called normal families, initially the parents humour the male child child if he behaves like a girl. But as he grows up, once he turns eleven or twelve, the parents start getting wet at the childs behaviour. By the time he is in his teens, the father typically starts abusing and beating the child. Such an attitude displayed by the parent is more say in villages and small towns since here awareness is less. The transgender child himself does not shed light on the reasons behin d his behaviour he cannot understand why he feels like a female inside, and gets more frustrated with the constant chastising by the parents. briefly he associates away, usually with the aid of a sympathetic elder in the village, who directs him to a hijra community in some other village.The hijra community and the premier signs of awareness by the single(a) about his own biologyWhen he reaches there, the hijra community welcomes him and explains to him the reasons behind his so called queer behaviour. They give him the option of worthy a part of their community after the conversion process into a transsexual, castration followed by surgical regeneration of the vagina, or to remain as he is and explore the cosmea by himself. In to the highest degree instances, the individual at that moment decides to stay as he is, and goes into the village to seek employment opportunities. As or so hijras testify, very soon the transgender individual is then raped, in most cases by policeme n who arrest them on the supposed rationality that they are homosexual. It is tragic to know that the law enforcers are usually the ones who sexually violate these individuals first. After being mistreat multiple times, sexually as well as physically, the broken individual returns to the hijra community and asks for acceptance into their family.The castration process is never smooth in nature, usually carried out without the aid of modern anaesthesia or antibiotics. The operation costs for the surgical reconstructive memory of the female biological variety meat ( such as the vagina) range from a tokenish of seven thousand rupees (no anaesthesia) to a high of fifty thousand rupees. Since most of these individuals are silly, they settle for the operation that requires lesser costs. Depending upon the money, the expertise, and the success of the operation, the surgical reconstruction varies from being partially to fully complete. In many cases, if the surgery goes wrong, it tale nt lead to blockage in the urinary passage and this could be terribly painful for the individual.The hijra familyA hijra family comprises young ladys, sisters and mothers no males. After being rejected by their own biological families, the hijra family becomes the first and only source of emotional support. They are strong, close knit and provide safety and security for the abandoned people.However, due to poverty, discrimination, lack of education and skills, many of them have no means of earning money. So, they suck in commercial sex work and begging. Most hijras do not think twice about joining the sex tidy sum, what with being abused physically and mentally multiple times.Transgender, Transsexual and IntersexualAt the most basic level, we take a look at the meanings of terms, transgender, transsexual, gynandromorphual and androgyne. A Transgender is a person who is assigned a gender at birth based on his/her genitals, but feels that the assigned gender is a chimerical re presentation of himself/ herself. Such a persons identity does not conform unambiguously to conventional notions of male or female gender roles, but combines or moves between these roles. Gender-queer, third gender are also names habituated to transgender individuals.According to The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health (ICD), Trans-sexuality is a need that certain(prenominal) individuals have to live and be acknowledged as a member of the opposite sex, usually accompanied by a sense of discomfort with ones ones current sex, and a desire to have hormonal and surgical treatment to make ones body conform as much as possible with ones preferred sex. On the removal of the sexual organs he/she was born with, a transgender becomes a transsexual. In simpler words, Transsexual men and women desire to establish themselves permanently as a member of the gender with which they identify, often using medical help for the same.One out of all(prenominal) two t housand births is an intersex child, and usually the birth leaves the parents of the child frustrated, confused and depressed. It also leaves them with a dilemma as to which gender the child belongs. Intersexed individuals do not have all the regular combinations of physical features they have some chromosomal, genital anomalies. In simpler terms, such individuals may have biological characteristics of both males and females, i.e, these individuals have some parts of males and some of females. In some cases, an intersex person might look unambiguous sexually, but internally the sex anatomy is mixed, i.e he may have AIS complete Androgen insensitiveness Syndrome and therefore, even though he has a Y chromosome and testes, the individual is otherwise completely female on the outside. Thus the fundamental difference between an intersex individual and a transgender is that inappropriate an intersex individual, a transgendered person is born with the conventional male or female anatom y.All the same, unlike other normal humans, he feels himself/herself to be a gender different from the one he/she born as.Discrimination against hijras Education, health, employmentThe highly inhabit country that India is, with several different castes, religions, languages, the hijra community becomes an almost invisible minority. Biases against hijras are prevalent in our society in all walks of life. They are not granted education in schools, colleges or universities. Over ninety percentage of the hijras have not even completed their secondary education. Hence, they do not get jobs, and in the rare occurrence that they do get employed, the salaries they come up are minimal. Due to the harsh economic conditions, they resort to sex work and begging. Hygienic activities are not practiced by those who are in the flesh trade. Even though the usage of condoms is insisted by them to protect themselves as well as their clients from HIV/STD, the people involved in this trade are s mone y box prone to getting other diseases like skin diseases due to lack of hygienic and safe practices. Even in hospitals and clinics, many transgender and transsexual people are discriminated against, and not given the respect or lordliness that every human being deserves.Most of the transgender and transsexual people live in slums. Even if they have the monetary power to rent a house, due to the misconceptions about their lifestyle, most people refuse to give them a house on rent. Contempt, hatred and fear form a major part of the general impression about this unfortunate third gender. Even in public places like bus stations, railways stations, theatres, temples, offices, malls, even in public toilets, hijras are abused.A LOOK THROUGH HISTORYMost hijras believe their origins to date back to the period of the Mahabharata. In it, Arjuna has to hide himself for a year. He decides to dress up as a woman as this is completely opposite to his till then great warrior status. During this pe riod when he is a drag, he is a dancer in the kings court, and also a wedding singer.Then later, during the Kaurava Pandava war, the pandavas want to make a human sacrifice, accept that it would ensure victory in the war. No one is ready to volunteer, till finally, Aravan, the son of Arjun comes forward and offers himself for sacrifice. He has only one condition, that, he should enthral one night of marital rapture before the sacrifice. This proves to be a difficult maculation since no king is willing to marry his daughter to Aravan, knowing fully well that she would be widowed the neighboring day. Finally, master copy Krishna takes a female form and spends one night of marital bliss with Aravan. Aravan is duly sacrificed the next day. The story has become more and more touristy by dint of the ages and now, every year, in the village of Koovagam in Villupuram district in Tamil Nadu, there is a temple festival and thousands of hijras travel through the breadth of the country to attend it. Aravan is the temples main deity and thousands of hijras pay homage, or in a mock ceremony get married to his idol, and in the process become Aravanis. One night before the festival ends, the hijras enjoy a night of marital bliss with their lovers and the next day, a coarse effigy of Aravan is taken through the streets of Koovagam and then the body is set to flames. on that point is a passage in Zia Jaffreys rule take, The Invisibles a tale of eunuchs in India, that dialog about the Ramayana. According to legend, when Rama went to the forest, many people followed him. Rama then asks all the men and women to go back. The hijras, being neither men nor women stay put and retain for Rama to return for fourteen years. On Ramas return, he is touched by their obedience and blesses them for their loyalty by sanctioning them the power to grant blessings on auspicious occasions like childbirth, marriage, and other functions hence the custom of badhai, in which hijras sin g, dance and confer blessings.The hijras also worship Bahuchara mata. As legend goes, a woman, Bahuchara was locomotion through a forest in Gujarat. She is accosted by some dacoits who venture to rape her. She cuts off her breast and offers it to them, in exchange asking them not to touch her. She then dies and becomes an earth goddess. During the conversion process, i.e, the castration process, a hijra accoucheuse cuts a coconut to see if the process should continue. If Bahuchara mata agrees, the coconut will cold shoulder into two clean halves. The hijra who is tolerateing the castration process, mutters mata mata mata until the process is complete. As legend goes, Bahuchara mata appears in front of impotent men and orders them to cut off their genitals and become her slaves. If they do not agree, they would become impotent for the next seven generations.According to another popular legend, a king in Gujarat fell madly in love with Bahucharimatha, a beautiful goddess who rode a peacock. The king cute to marry her, but she was not ready to have a sexual relationship. When he continued to persist in his endeavours, she relented but told him to first have a bath in a pond. On coming out of the pond, he was aghast to discover that he was emasculated, and would not be able to consummate his union with the goddess. The goddess pacified him by saying that he would soon uprise a community of people who would voluntarily castrate themselves in his honour. some the worldEunuchs were a part of the Egyptian court, during the time when the Assyrian empire was ruling the country.In Rome, Emperor Constantine had a number of eunuchs tending to him for haircuts, baths, dressing and other functions.In the Byzantine royal court too, there were a number of eunuchs employed to handle domestic and administrative work.The Ottoman Empire had two categories of eunuchs taking care of the harem. The black eunuchs served the officers with maids of lower ranks, whereas the white eunuchs (those brought from the Balkan states) served those who were recruited in the castle school.In India, eunuchs were employed by kings to take care of the ladies palaces, serve as guards and messengers for the royal ladies.LITERATURE REVIEWAfter getting a general understanding of the hijras, the categories, their lives, their history, I would now proceed to examine the literature that has been apply to them.The Invisibles A tale of Eunuchs in India is a bold, beautifully written, thought arouse retain about the hijras of India by Zia Jaffrey. In the book, Anita, a hermaphrodite is pass on over to the hijra community by her parents when she is just four years old because they cannot accept the fact that they do not have a normal child and are crushed by what they see. Another character, Kamal, born as a male, believes herself to be a female and castrates herself, while a third character Jagoman is kidnapped in Delhi, drugged and then castrated against his will. In the book , Jaffrey takes us on a journey throughout the country to find out who the hijras really are, why the subject has not been researched on much and why is it taboo, and why their history was never recorded. The book gives a detailed interpretation of the lives, practices, culture and history of this unfortunate gender raises pertinent questions about societys attitude and in many ways illuminates not just the grim world of the eunuchs but also that of India, itself.Neither Man, nor Woman The hijras of India is an astounding piece of physical composition by Serena Nanda. Initially, it aims at correcting the common misconception that all hijras are men who undergo a ritual castration, thereby removing their genitals and becoming hijras. The book informs us that the hijras might have come from various sexual ambiguous backgrounds some may have been born as intersex, while others would have been born as male or female but failed to develop at puberty, or males who continued living as h ijras without ever getting castrated. Nanda goes on to make comparisons of Indian hijras with other alternative gender roles belonging to other cultures, such as the transsexuals living in many Western societies and also with the Berdache of native North America. What is intriguing but all the same exceedingly interesting to note is that although most societies, especially the Asian, accept the ambiguity of gender by creating a third gender role, Western society seems super adamant on the theory that a person can be either male or female only. In fact, even the homosexuals and transsexuals in these societies are considered to be a member of either of the two above genders.Transgender Rights, as the title suggests, is a book on the transgender rights movement that started in the United States of America thirty years back and is still difference strong. The book assesses the victories and failures of the movement, the future challenges as well as opportunities. The movement fought for the rights of transgenders and transsexuals. The book is, in essence, a collection of articles that covered the rights movement, offering new perspectives and it examines of the essence(p) topics like employment opportunities, public health, economics, and grassroots organizing. This path breaking book is an essential resource in the fight for the freedom and equality of those who muff gender boundariesChanging Sex and Bending Gender, edited by Alison Shaw and Shirley Ardener is a compilation of nine essays about the cultural and historical construction and deconstructionism of sex and gender. The initial chapters speak about the definitions of sex and gender and that even though sex is based on biological characteristics and gender on social classifications, the definitions do not stand fixed across cultures. The next two chapters discuss the cultural pressures in the sex classification when a child is born. With 1.6 percent of children all over the world being born with amb iguous genitalia, the book offers several examples of the response to this, across cultures. As expected, the reactions do not vary much across cultures. The final three chapters tummy with the lay mans interpretations and misconceptions about other alternative genders. The objective of the book is to bring out the fact that sex and gender are not fixed concepts and what happens when individuals push these two concepts beyond the point that society has defined as permissible. The book is an excellent read, especially for people who want to pursue anthropology or gender studies.The Female Eunuch by Germaine Greer is one of the most popular and widely read books on feminism. Published in 1970, it became an international best considerer and was translated in over ten languages. It is a passionate, almost furious, hard hitting book on the present standing of women as compared to men, in the world. The book, at that time, served as a wakeup call to all women. It contends that sexual fre edom is the key to womens liberation. It compares the psychological differences resulting from years of social conditioning, with the biological differences that are present between men and women. A section has been attributed to society, of its origins, its development over the years and where it currently stands. done this book, Greer exposes the nature of inequalities that exist when it comes to gender rights and issues, and suggests strategies that could help improve the situation, if anyone chose to do so.The history of a Sex Worker by Nalini Jameela is an extremely personal, honest look of the life of Nalini. The book gives deep insights about the life of sex workers, and the circumstances in which they make their choices. Brought up in an Ezhava family, in her early years, Nalini kit and caboodle in the clay mines. Through the course of the book, we notice the slow and gradual changes in society. Being extremely poor, and having children to support, she decides to resort to commercial sex work to earn money. The story goes back to the dark days of Emergency, when the police used to routinely arrest and torture innocent people, most of them who were poor and whose voices could not be heard. She recounts her interactions with the police in a chillingly, honest manner. Over the years, with the advent of organizations that worked for social rights, gender rights etc, the situation improved even though there were still innocent people who were jailed. The account is neither cynical, nor does it have any traces of self pity. Nalini understood that to take care of her children, she would need to sell her body. The love that she displays for her daughter is heart warming. The book is an important read, one that helps us to understand that society can be exploitive, unforgiving and it has multiple layers, many of which are hidden to the naked, believing eye.KNOWLEDGE GAPAt the most basic level, there exists a lack of knowledge amongst the lay man about hijra s. The first step, therefore, should be to create basic awareness in the minds of people, to sensitize them, to reach a stage where hijras can also expect a life of dignity.There are too many misconceptions and stereotypes associate to hijras. This has led to a lot of social stigma being habituated to this gender.Lack of opportunities, be it education, employment, health.RESEARCH METHODOLOGYThe objective of my research methodology would be to illustrate the social marginalization of eunuchs by pointing out, statistically and otherwise, their absence in social, legal and political organizations.This will be done through, synopsis of secondary dataA review of works on the subject by authors, academic as well as non academic literature, give-and-take traverses, blogs and websites.Primary ResearchTaking interviews of hijras, first-hand accounts to verify conclusions derived from the secondary data. Also, conducting interviews of individuals working in social organizations, devoted to improving the conditions of hijras.Empirical ObservationsEXPECTED CONTRIBUTIONMy dissertation does not claim to have a tangible and substantial mensurable contribution but adds to the domains of human sensitivity, sensibility and conscientization. A postmodern condition, such as the one we claim to have arrived at, cannot be complete unless all its participants have equal access to what constitutes a minimum life of dignityHowever, the objective of my research, studies and thesis, does comprise suggesting measures that, if implemented, would ensure that the hijras can enjoy a life with certain rights that every human being deserves. These would include sustainable and operable proposals for employment, education and healthcare opportunities.THE CONTEXT OF MARGINALIZATIONIndian society is pro strandly divided along the lines of gender, caste, religion, class, language, education, all of which intersect with sexuality to create deeper divides andoppressions. while hijras are de spised and treated with contempt in most societies, they are supposed to have a sanctioned place in Hindi society (especially in weddings, births and festivals) as a recognized third gender, meet gender variation, ambiguity and contradictions. There is an arguement that says that unlike other sexual minorities such as bisexuals, gays and lesbians all that largely remain closeted, the hijras overall are a visible force , and part of an organized community. Despite this supposedly exalted status amongst the sexual minorities, reality is starkly harsh. All over the country, in any part where the Hijras reside, their lives are physically, mentally and emotionally scarred by experiences of shame, dishonour and gruesome violence. In the contemporary scenario, its not just the ambiguous gender but also the class dimension of the hijra and kothi community that has a severe impact on issues which the upper class so hands down take for granted, such as access to education, employment etc . The violence that they suffer on a daily basis is something that no other community in this country faces.Imagine yourself in a situation where practically the entire world looks down upon you, a mere look at you is met with contempt, imagine a world where you do not even enjoy basic privileges like education, a job, a life. Imagine a world where not even your parents and siblings can accept you for who you are and contract to hate you for no apparent fault of yours. Imagine being trounce up every day by random men. Imagine being penetrated physically, mentally every day by random men. Imagine glaring every day.Welcome to the world of Hijras.In most of South India, the hijras do not even have the cultural role that their counterparts have in the northern parts of the country. Most employers are not ready to contract them for available jobs. Often, they resort to hiding their gender identity but if found out, in most cases, they are thrown out from their positions. Therefore se x work becomes, in most cases, the only form of employment. They usually run bath houses, also known as Hamams. The Hamams are generally visited by working class men and the police. Of course, most of these men are married. It is an extremely dangerous profession, as they are often subjected to the sadistic whims, fancies and atrocities of cruel customers.Narrated on a lower floor are the testimonies given by some of the hijras I had the privilege of collision and speaking to. As is clear, kothis and hijras take up sex work for a variety of reasons. One reason involves the pragmatic consideration of supporting the family. There is also the pride which comes from being able to support the family. Another reason has to do with theself-acceptance of being a hijra and with the related discovery of a certain kind of freedom that living in the hijra community can provide. legion(predicate) hijras and kothis fiercely assert that there is nothing disreputable about being a sex worker and it is as legitimate a piece of work as any other.BIBLIOGRAPHYJournals PublicationsPeoples Union for Civil Liberties, Karnataka(2000).Human rights violations against sexuality minorities in India report (first edition).PUCL KARNATAKA.Peoples Union for Civil Liberties, Karnataka(2007).Human rights violations against sexuality minorities in India report (second edition).PUCL KARNATAKA.Bodies That Dont Matter The excursive

Cross Linguistic Influence English Language Essay

Cross Linguistic Influence incline Language EssayThe explore bea of this story is a cross- lingual influence or as other(a)wise known exaltation. Specific completelyy, I jut out to examine orthographic conveyancing and its potential drop lay out on face primaeval speakers orthoepy of segmentals in German as their moment phrase.The situation that writing system can buoy influence second lyric poem orthoepy is acknow directge by m twain foreign address teachers. Nevertheless, at that place is not exuberant present for such(prenominal) influence and to a greater extent than research is needed (Bas massti, 2008). earlier research on orthographic transportation system has mainly looked at its do on strikeing and spelling (Jarvis Pavlenko, 2008). Cook and Bassetti (2005) argue that makeup brass transfer is separate from quarrel transfer maintaining that it is not so lots aspects of the language that whitethorn be carried over as the attributes of a special(prenominal) writing outline (p. 29). Jarvis and Pavlenko (2008) concur with the in a higher place statement however they as well emphasize the importance of the connection betwixt orthographic transfer and language use, since it relates to the orthographic operationuate on phonology and ill-doing versa. According to Jarvis and Pavlenko, during the teaching of L1literacy skills, which uses the phonic alphabet, important sound-letter residues be acquired which later can be transferred to the skill and use of the second language. Before proceeding any further, the con inclineion of both(prenominal) key impairment that be extensively used in this saucys theme as well as their definitions as proposed by the researchers in the country of SLA is required. The terms be writing system and orthography.The graduation exercise term to specify is writing system. Coulmas (1999) defines writing system (WS) as a set of telescopic or tactile signs to re empower unit s of language in a authoritative route (p. 560). There are various types of writing systems depending on what type of linguistic units they represent (Bassetti, 2005). Consequently, there are writing systems whose linguistic units are consonants hence the name consonantal WSs (for pillow slip, Hebrew and Arabic). Morphemic WSs are stand for by morphemes (Chinese) and alphabetic WSs are represented by ph wizardmes ( side of meat, German, and Spanish). In addition, there are in like manner syllabic WSs whose linguistic units are syllables (Japanese). This paper leave itemally focus on alphabetic writing systems of English and German languages which use the aforementioned(prenominal) script the Roman alphabet.The term writing system relates to orthography which is the second term and is defined as a set of rules for using script in a particular language, such as symbol- phoneme correspondences, capitalization, punctuation, etc. (Coulmas, 2003, p. 35). For example, in Englis h orthography the letter s is read as /s/ and in German orthography as /z/ (Benware, 1986). olibanum, the self aforesaid(prenominal)(prenominal) script- the Roman alphabet- is used disaccordently in the English and German orthographies. Orthographies of the aforesaid(prenominal) type of alphabetic writing system and script are also varied in their regularity of sound-symbol correspondences (Cook Bassetti, 2005). For instance, in English, the letter a maps to different phonemes in words such as park, bank, and ball, whereas in German the same letter a has only one pronunciation /a/ as in German nouns Park, Ball, Bank (Goswami, Ziegler, Richardson, 2005). English orthography is in truth inconsistent in terms of its sound-letter correspondences thus it is considered to have deep orthography. Languages such as German, Italian and Spanish have relatively consistent letter-to-sound correspondences, so their orthographies are shallow or as otherwise called phonologically transparent (Cook Bassetti, 2005). Thus, it should be easier for English native speakers to acquire German sound-letter correspondence rules than for German native speakers to acquire English sound-letter correspondence rules. Nevertheless, there has been observed a capacious depend of segmental mispronunciations by English native speakers nurture German as a foreign language. Therefore, the question arises whether the companionship of L1 orthography has an effect on how English native speakers pronounce segmentals in German or are there any other factors such as kin(p) berth or the age of attainment that contribute to the orthographic transfer?.Literature reviewThe focus of this paper is to explore whether the familiarity of L1 (English) orthography, to wit its sound-letter correspondence rules, is transferred to L2 (German) and whether it has any positive degree or prejudicial effects on L2 pronunciation of segmentals in self-aggrandising language learners of different growth t akes. The paper also aims at investigating whether there is a significant disagreement of orthographic transfer produced by learners at different proficiency levels (beginning, intermediate and advanced). Finally, the knowledge go out examine whether a lexical factor such as related to status has all positive or negative effect on the acquisition and use of German as a foreign language.A number of studies have examined orthographic effects on either spelling or reading. Many studies also have looked at the effects of L1 orthographic experience on L2 word learning and decoding. However, there has been little research examining the effects of orthography on phonology and vice versa. According to Hayes-Harb, Nicol, and Barker (2010) no research has examined spelling conventions of the native and second languages where both make out the same script. Although there is whatever evidence of the kind between orthographic and phonological representations in learning crude wording , to a greater extent research is needed to shed light on this phenomenon (Hayes-Harb et al., 2010).As this test examines orthographic transfer from English to German, the notion of cross-linguistic similarity should be taken into consideration in particular given the fact that both languages share a significant number of cross-linguistic similarities in consanguine, lexical, phonological, and writing systems areas. Ringbom and Jarvis (2009) discuss the importance of cross-linguistic similarities in foreign language learning. Specifically, they maintain that learners desire on their earlier linguistic knowledge and look for similarities rather than differences between the L1 and the TL. Ringbom and Jarvis also state that second language learners refer to their previous linguistic knowledge broadly at the beginning stages of second language acquisition. some other important factor such as phonetic awareness and phonetic sensitivity should not be neglected. Piske (2008) maintai ns that children develop phonetic sensitivity to delivery contrasts specific to their L1 long before they begin read and write and at the same time their ability to perceive non-native speech contrasts (L2) weakens with age. So for adult language learners perceiving non-native speech contrast and sounds that are particular to the tail end language is difficult. To develop phonological awareness and sensitivity would require an extensive reading and frequent exposure to target language. Considering this fact, Piske states that adult language learners are influenced by writing systems of their L1 during L2 acquisition. Consequently this results in learners pronunciation errors which are linked to the trustingness on L1 grapheme-phoneme correspondence rules. Especially this refers to the cases when sound-letter correspondences are inconsistent between the L1 and L2.Odlin (1989) also provides ample evidence compiled from different studies that demonstrate the clear effect of first l anguage influence on L2 speech production and orthography. Odlin states that similar writing systems in L1 and L2 represent a much easier labour for learners acquiring a new language. The same however, cannot be said of pronunciation, as other variables may influence decoding of written symbols in L2. Flege, Freida, Walley, and Randaza (1998) examined whether lexical factors such as frequency, familiarity, cognate status and the age of acquisition have an effect on production. The authors provide an insight into what role the cognate status of words can play and how it effects speech production. More specifically, Flege et al. state that degree of perceive relatedness can vary depending on degree of cross-linguistic similarities the L1 and L2 share. Specifically, they evidence to the law of proximity of cognate pairs in L1-L2 in their crockeding and especially in sound. This paper will also examine whether cognate pairs influence L2 pronunciation of target sounds. Based on the se statements it is also likely that English-speaking learners of German will rely on their knowledge of English sound-letter correspondence rules when speaking or reading in the target language. This may result in either mispronunciation of sealed sound-letter correspondences that are inconsistent with English orthography or it may have facilitatory effects on L2 phonology acquisition.In terms of findings several studies specially stand out. Young-Scholten (2002)1 provides evidence of orthographic effects on the production of German consonants by English speakers. Another consume conducted by Young-Scholten, Akita, and Cross (1999)2 also shows evidence of the effects of written representations on the pronunciation of consonant clusters in learners of Polish as a second language. These findings led the researchers to conclude that there is a coincidenceship between orthographic representations and L2 phonology. separate studies investigating the effects of orthography on second language phonology demonstrate that second language learners pronunciation can be influenced by orthographic input (Bassetti, 2007).Bassetti (2007) examined the effects of pinyin (a romanized version of the Chinese language) on pronunciation in learners of Chinese as a foreign language. The author predicted that orthographic representation of pinyin would result in learners not pronouncing the main vowel in the rhymes whose transcription does not represent that main vowel as in rhymes /iu/ which maps to iou, /ui/ uei and /un/ un. The results of the study suggest strong influence of pinyin orthographic rules on the pronunciation of Chinese rhymes. Specifically, learners of Chinese as a foreign language would scratch the main vowel, which is not present orthographically however they would always pronounce the same main vowel in the rhymes /you/, /wen/, and /wei/ (Bassetti, 2006 Bassetti, 2007).One of the most novel studies conducted by Hayes-Harb et al. (2010) provides some evide nce of orthographic influence on the acquisition of the phonological forms of new words. In this study, Hayes-Harb et al. recreated conditions in which subjects experienced learning new vocabulary in a new language. The aim of the study was to check over whether the posture of the written form of the new words affected the learning of their phonological form. Thus, native speakers of English were divided into ternion roots. The first pigeonholing was provided with the written forms of new words that were inconsistent with English spelling. The second sort was presented with words that were matching the English sound-letter correspondences. The third pigeonholing had only an auditory input and no written forms of the new words were provided. The results demonstrated that L1 orthography interfered with students ability to learn new words especially when new vocabulary differed from English sound-letter correspondences. While Hayes-Harb et al. (2010) provide some evidence of or thographic effects in the process of learning new phonological forms of words, the authors admit that the system is a novel one and in the forthcoming should be controlled by learners spelling ability.Previous studies show clear effects of a relationship between orthography and phonology in second language acquisition. a lot of the research has analyzed orthographies that use different writing systems, and as Hayes-Harb et al. (2010) point out very little research has been done investigating the effects of orthographies on L2 pronunciation within the same writing system and script. Therefore, the routine of this paper is to investigate further the notion of orthographic transfer by analyzing the relationship between orthography and phonology of two languages that share the same script and the following research questions are addressed in this paperIs orthographic transfer statistically present in the sample?Do results vary and are they statistically significant between different proficiency levels?What is the nature of relationship between error form and students perceptions of cognate status?Method2.1 ParticipantsThe participants of this study were 28 undergraduate American English speakers from Ohio University. The students were enrolled in the 100, 200 and ccc levels of German as a foreign language. The levels differ by proficiency. The 100 level is offered to sires, the 200 level is an intermediate level, and the 300 level is taught to the advanced students respectively. Each proficiency level consists of a trinity quarter sequence meeting four hours per week with regular homework assignments. Each year sequence of German series focuses on maturation all four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing).2.2 Materials and proceduresThe study consisted of two casts the screening strain and the data aggregation phase. During the screening phase, students enrolled in all three proficiency levels volunteered to fill out an online langu age background fall out. The purpose of this survey was to drive potential participants for the study by controlling several variables that could have had an effect on the results. It was set up in such a way that participants could be screened based on their responses to the first three questions. Thus, those who did not condition for the study were automatically eliminated without going over all of the survey questions. commencement of all, it helped eliminate the students with any reading or speech dis pronounces. It also helped blockade those students who were taking another foreign language class along with German. The survey also eliminated the students who had taken a foreign language other than German less than a year ago, which could have contributed to transfer from that language into their knowledge and use of German. In addition, entropy such as students motivation, number of old age they have studied German and the time spent in German speaking countries was smo oth through this survey. As a result, out of 63 students who had volunteered to fill out the survey, 28 were qualified and participated in the data collection phase. The selected participants include nine beginners, eight intermediate-level students, and eleven advanced-level students.The data collection phase consisted of three deputes administered in the following order an in formal reading loudly task, a formal reading loudly task, and a perception task. solely three tasks were performed by the students during individual single session meetings go bading cardinal minutes.Reading aloud is considered to be the best way to test the knowledge of sound-letter correspondences. It provides good control and allows for comparison of speech samples from different subjects. Reading aloud is also a technique that is widely used in a foreign language class thanks to which participants feel more prospering during data collection (Madsen, 1983). During the informal reading task, students w ere asked to read aloud a German text which was adapted in order to target certain German consonants and consonant clusters as detailed in Tables 1 and 2. The stock sets (see Table 1) include incongruent grapheme-phoneme correspondences students presumably would have had the most barrier producing.Table 1. Incongruent grapheme-phoneme correspondencesSounds live on in both languages, but are represented with different lettersGerman phoneme-graphemecorrespondencesEnglish phoneme-graphemecorrespondences1w / v e.g., Wind vntv /v eg. van vn2v / f e.g., Vogel foglf / f eg. caramel fn3s / z e.g., sinken zknz / z eg. zone zon4s/ when followed by e.g., Sport prts / when followed by eg. shine an5s / when followed by e.g., Student tudnts / when followed by eg. shed dSounds are different in both languages, but are represented with the same letters6t/ ts e.g., Tradition traditsiont/ e.g., tradition trdhttp//sp.dictionary.com/dictstatic/dictionary/graphics/luna/thinsp.pngn7z/ ts e.g., Zimme r tsmz / z e.g., zone zon8ch/ e.g., sportlich prtlch/ t e.g., rich rtAlso is included a set of congruent phoneme-grapheme correspondences that exist in both English and German languages (see Table 3).Table 3. Congruent grapheme-phoneme correspondencesGrapheme-phoneme correspondences existing in both languagesGerman examplesEnglish examples12345b maps to bn maps to nl maps to lt maps to tp maps to pBank bakNuss ns vote out lant differentiate takPark parkBank bkNut ntLand lnd Tag tg Park prk To test students pronunciation of the targeted German segmentals in relation to potential transfer effects, each grapheme-phoneme correspondence listed in Tables 1 and 2 was encountered at least twice in the informal reading task and once in the formal reading task. Students readings in both tasks were enter in a soundproof recording laboratory using auditory sensation recording software. During the first task, students had one minute to read the text taciturnly before being recorded.The formal reading task followed the informal one and required the participants to read words with the targeted sounds in isolation. The words in the formal task were a subset of those used in the informal task and some of them were cognates with English. Finally, during the perception task students had to categorize a list of both cognate and non-cognate German words in terms of their similarity to any of the English words. Students had to rate the words on a three-point scale (1=same 2= similar 3= dissimilar) relying on their own perceptions. Table 3 beneath births examples of words students rated in the perception task.Table 3 Categorization of cognate and non-cognate wordsSame meaningFormSameSimilar dissimilarGer. WindEng. WindGer. SturmEng. stormGer. VielEng. manyGer. StudentEng. StudentGer. milchEng. MilkGer. VogelEng. birdGer. WinterEng. WinterGer. TemperaturEng. TemperatureGer. ZeitEng. timeGer. ferventEng. WarmGer. WetterEng. WeatherGer. ZimmerEng. roomGer. SportEng. SportGer. Natu rlichEgn. of courseGer. traurigEng. sadGer. TraditionEng. TraditionGer. SportlichEng. sportyGer. InformationEng. InformationGer. SonneEng. cheerGer. StrudelEng. StrudelResults from these tasks revealed whether the reliance on first language orthography had a positive or negative effect on students pronunciation of segmentals in German. The mispronunciations in the recordings were quantified, categorized and recorded in a data file. Their performance was then codified and entered in the data file. Finally, student survey responses and identifying info collected through the questionnaire were matched with participants reading performance results and the perception task. Once the survey information and performance results were merged, the data was de-identified to ensure the confidentiality of the participants.Data depth psychology and resultsIn order to address the first research question of whether orthographic transfer is statistically present in the sample, the Wilcoxon Signed- Rank Test, the nonparametric alternative to the paired-sample t-test was used to examine whether the participants pronunciation errors were statistically more prevalent in cases of incongruent sound-letter correspondences between the L1 and L2 than in cases of congruent sound-letter correspondences. That is, we tested whether the participants dispersion of errors and successes is keyed to the specific ways in which the L1 and L2 are related in terms of sound-letter correspondences. The results of the test revealed that orthographic transfer is statistically present in the sample (p=.00). Students indeed produced more errors in cases of incongruent sound-letter correspondences and there were zero number of mistakes in cases with congruent sound-letter correspondences.In order to address our second research question concerning whether there is any difference in the mean pees between proficiency level groups, The Kruskal Wallis test was performed. This test was conducted on the resul ts of the reading tasks of the experiment to test whether the subjects from the three proficiency level groups differed significantly in producing German segmentals , f, ts, p, t, z, v. It was assumed that the distribution of errors would be more prevalent in the beginner level group as opposed to intermediate and advanced level groups. The results demonstrated a significant difference in mean scores between all three proficiency groups for both informal and formal reading tasks (p =.009). The results of the descriptive statistics are summarized below in Table 5.Table 5 miserly error scores for each proficiency levelBeginners group mean scoreIntermediate group mean scoreAdvanced group mean scoreGroup MeanInformal reading task22.5015.588.0014.83Formal reading task20.4213.855.4112.64Cumulative error mean43.3730.4313.4127.90 legitimate N981128Finally, in our last research question we examined the relationship between students performance results in both reading tasks and their percept ions regarding cognate status of the words. For this purpose a correlation abridgment was conducted to examine what kind of relationship there exist between the number of errors produced in the target sounds and the number of students rating the words as same or dissimilar. As a result, correlation coefficient between error score and a number of students rating the words as same revealed a weak negative relationship between these two variables, with correlation coefficient r = -.47. On the other hand, correlation analysis between error score and a number of students rating the words as dissimilar showed a moderate positive relationship between the variables with r = .57.DiscussionThe present study is exploratory in its nature yet the results show evidence of orthographic transfer in the sample. By that we mean that students do tend to rely on their L1 knowledge of sound-letter correspondence rules specifically in the cases of incongruent sound-letter correspondences between the L1 and L2. The results also indicate a significant difference in mean error scores at different proficiency levels. Thus, the beginner level students produced the highest number of errors in targeted segmentals than students from intermediate and advanced levels. These findings support the intellect Ringbom and Jarviss (2009) stated that the second language learners rely more on their previous linguistic knowledge at an early stages of second language acquisition. This especially applies to the languages that share a significant number of cross-linguistic features in cognate, lexical, phonological and writing systems, as in case of English and German.The results of this study are also in line with previous findings of Piske (2008), which suggested that adult learners are influenced by the writing systems of their L1. A considerable number of errors were observed in producing in seven out of eight German segmentals , f, ts, p, t, z, ts with the exception of v which maps to w in German. For example, the highest number of errors students produced was the German consonant g in word final exam which maps to palatal fricative when preceded by front vowels as in traurig and consonantal cluster ch in word final which also maps to palatal in words such as Milch, natrlich, sportlich. Students produced these two sounds as k. They also disjointed German v which maps to f with its English counterpart v. The same was observed with the other two German consonants s,z which map to z,ts respectively and were pronounced as English phonemes s, z. This can be explained by the fact that all German consonants mentioned above are represented by the same graphemes in English, which resulted in students mispronunciations. raise results were obtained from the words that contained labio-dental v which in German maps to w grapheme. None of the students had errors producing this sound scorn the fact that the same grapheme /w/ maps to an approximant w in English. This could be taken as following it appears easier for students to produce sounds that are far apart in terms of their place of articulation than for instance, the sounds that vary only in their voicing. Thus students in this study had difficulty to devoice fricative f in German because it is represented by grapheme v, which in English maps to express fricative v. Participants of this study also struggled producing consonantal clusters st, sp which in German language map to t, p. Although English has phoneme , it exists in different phonetic environment and is never followed by p,t phonemes in onset. Therefore students confused these two consonantal clusters with their English counterparts and produced them as sp for example English sport or st as in English student.Lastly, the perception task yielded somewhat ambiguous results. It appears that there tycoon be a relationship between the error score and a number of students rating the words as dissimilar. Nonetheless, this needs to be investigated in the future research using a larger sample as there was insufficient amount of data to strongly support the findings. For more details regarding error score and the students perceptions see Table 6 in Appendix A.ConclusionThe purpose of this study was to find out to what extent English-speaking learners of German rely on the English orthography and whether the presence of cognate words results in mispronunciation in the target language or vice versa helps learners to acquire L2 phonology. Given what was found (a) evidence that English orthography, videlicet its grapheme-phoneme rules interferes with learners pronunciation of German segmentals, (b) evidence that learners were influenced by L1 writing system mostly at the beginning stages of second language acquisition, and (c) some evidence of potential relationship between the errors produced and students perceptions of cognate status, we competency consider some operable implications for foreign language classroom as well as futu re research implications.As Hayes-Herb et al. (2010) suggested language teachers might find it beneficial presenting new vocabulary using initially auditory input only. This may particularly refer to the non-cognates words as students in this study made more errors in words that they rated as dissimilar with English. At the same time, it may be helpful for learners to receive written input of the words that contain German w in word initial, as students produced zero errors, which might suggest that in this particular case written input positively influenced learners pronunciation. Therefore it is important for language instructors to be aware of orthographic transfer and its positive and negative effects so that they can address this information accordingly in their classroom. On the other hand more research is needed to support these findings. For this purpose a more comprehensive study with a larger sample would help to expand the current analysis of data and make the findings gen eralizable for a larger population of students studying German as a foreign language. Teacher surveys might reveal whether language instructors focus on orthographic transfer or is it something new to them as well as to what extent they focus on pronunciation of those specific sounds that might be problematic due to the reliance on L1 sound-letter correspondence rules in their classroom. The results can provide valuable insights that can be use to the teaching of German as a foreign language.Furthermore, given the ambit of this study only eight German segmentals were investigated. Examining other segmentals whose orthographic representations exist only in German (for example, , , , ) or segmentals whose sounds exist only in German but are represented by the same graphemes (for example German r which maps to several phonemes , , r depending on the in word position) would clearly provide better results on the way English and German orthographies act with German as a foreign langua ge phonology.To conclude, while the this study attempted to address questions on how orthography of L1 and its sound-letter correspondence rules can be transferred to L2 phonology resulting in mispronunciation of certain segmentals still more research on this topic is needed.